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Ages
Dr. A. ZahoorBy the tenth
century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was
recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of
learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). He introduced
the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals in place of
the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially
Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond
(Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century
Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic)
culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished
there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe,
were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other
famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael
Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of
Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some
into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew
into vernacular languages of Europe.Many
translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language
nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word
for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic
words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and
with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of
the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of
Arabic works on science and philosophy.Gerard, who
reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than
seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in
Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could
translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there
for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes
written as Gherard. Among his translations were the surgical part of
Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis), the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi
(Rhazes) and the Qanun of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Banu Musa's
works, Al-Biruni's commentry on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept
"Algorithm" is named), the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali.
John of Seville under the patronage of Raymond translated several
works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and
Al-Faraghni.Gundisalvi
translated the Kitab al-Nafs (Anima), the Kitab al-Shifa
(Sufficientia) of Ibn Sina, Al-Kullyat (Colliget) of Ibn Rushd's
(Averroes) commentary on it. The Italian Plato of Tivoli, Michael
Scotus, Robert of Chester and Hermanus Allemanus (Teutonicus) were
other famous translators of the thirteenth century. They flourished
at Tarrangona, Leon, Segovia, Pamplona, and other northern cities of
Spain. Thus Spanish Arab learning permeated through all Europe. It
passed from the portals of Toledo through Provence and the Alpine
passes into Lorrains, Germany, Central Europe and
England.Adelard of
Bath was the first of a long series of Arabic scholars of England
who traveled extensively in search of Arabic books. Adelard was born
in 1075 in Bath, England. He studied and taught in France and
visited Syria, Sicily and Spain before returning to Bath. He became
a teacher of the future King Henry II. Adelard died in 1160. He
translated several works on Mathematics and Astronomy. Among the
most important works he translated was the Astronomical tables
Al-Majriti (1126). Adelard made a Latin translation of Euclid's
Elements from Muslim sources. He also translated Al-Khwarizmi's
tables and other works on the abacus and astrolabe. His 'Quaestiones
naturales' consists of 76 scientific discussions derived from Muslim
sciences.Sicily and
Spain were the principal gateways of propagation of Arab (Islamic)
civilization to Europe. The two "baptized Sultans" of Sicily, Roger
II and Frederick II, Hohenstaufen, were the patrons of Arab culture
and learning. (Muslim presence in Sicily began in 827 C.E., and they
ruled it for more than 250 years, ending in 1091 C.E.). From Sicily
the fruits of Islamic sciences and culture spread through Italy
across the Alps, Lotharingia (Lorraine), Liege, Gorze and Cologne.
The other gateway was Spain through which it penetrated slowly
beyond the Pyrenees into western and south-western
France.Several
European orientalist like Mirabilis, after making the tour of the
Muslim countries, were so much impressed that on their return home
encouraged their students to leave the European schools for those of
the Arabs and this yielded beneficial results. At the beginning of
the thirteenth century, Christian Europe was learning medicine,
mathematics, physics, chemistry and astronomy, through its students
returning home from the Universities of Cordova, Toledo, Seville and
Granada.Constantine,
the African, traveled for thirty years in Muslim lands and studied
under Arab (Muslim) teachers. He translated several Arabic works
into Latin. Constantine organized the first medical school at
Salerno. This was followed by the opening of schools at Montpellier
and Paris. Recognizing that all scientific works were written in
Arabic, several European universities and schools, including those
at Toledo, Narbonne, Naples, Balogna and Paris, taught Arabic to
speed up the transmission of Arab (Muslim)
knowledge.References:1. George
Sarton, "Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. I-III,"
Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1927-31, also
1950.2. Robert
Briffault, "The Making of Humanity," London,
1938.3. Thomas
Arnold, "The Legacy of Islam," Oxford University Press,
1960.4. T. Arnold
and A. Guillaume, "The Legacy of Islam," Oxford University Press,
1931.5. E.G.
Brown, "Arabian Medicine," Cambridge, 1921.6. D.
Campbell, "Arabian Medicine and its influence on the Middle Ages,"
London, 1926.7. P.K.
Hitti, "History of Arabs," London, MacMillan,
1956.8. De Lacy
O'Leary, "Arabic Thought in History."9. A.A.
Khairallah, "Outline of Arabic Contribution to Medicine," Beirut,
1946.10. S.H.
Nasr, "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine," Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1964.11. Joseph
Hell, "Arab Civilization."12. C.H.
Haskins, "Studies in the History of Medieval Science," Cambridge,
MA, 1927.13.
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
