Understanding Islam [Electronic resources] نسخه متنی

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Understanding Islam




For decades Islam has evoked discussion and debate. The religion is under a
microscope after the 9/11 attacks. Never before has Islam been so questioned as to the extent that is today. A few scholars
have come to its rescue to clarify the principles on which Islam is based. One
such scholar is Professor John L. Esposito who has done so through his
writings.


Starting today, Gulf News will publish a series of eight articles by Esposito
shedding light on the many areas of Islam, among them being the Holy Quran, politics, women, and terrorism, to eliminate the
misunderstandings in Islam.


The attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon of September 11,
2001, and subsequent acts of
terrorism in Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Morocco continue to raise questions about the relationship of
Islam to violence and terrorism. At the same time, the Bush administration's
conducting of its war against global terrorism has led many Muslims to question
whether this is a war against Islam and the Muslim world and an attempt to
redraw the map of the Middle East and the Muslim world. Many in the Muslim
world and in the West warn of a clash of civilizations.


I am delighted to have this opportunity in this and in future articles to
discuss these and many other questions about Islam and the relationship of the
Muslim world to the West. Historically, relations between Islam and
Christianity, the Muslim world and the West, have been one of co-existence as
well as conflict.


In a world of globalization, weapons of mass destruction and global terrorism,
we are challenged as never before to promote mutual understanding and respect,
co-existence and co-operation. For as is sometimes forgotten, despite
differences, Muslims, Christians and Jews embrace an absolute monotheism, are
all People of the Book; Islam recognies God's
revelation to Moses and Jesus, is a religion of peace, moral responsibility and
accountability and, like the other children of Abraham, shares a passion for
social justice.


Equally important all in the mainstream of Muslim, Christian and Jewish
societies and communities today share a common enemy: global terrorism. To say
all of this is not to deny the differences and grievances engendered in recent
years by the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the Gulf War of 1990-1991, sanctions
and more recently the war in Iraq, the September 11, 2001, attacks, etc.


The first batch of my columns will deal with many of the questions and issues
raised over the years, especially post 9/11: what is Islam's teachings
regarding violence and terrorism, suicide bombings and martyrdom, Jews and
Christians, jihad, gender relations, democracy, pluralism.


Today I will deal specifically with the issue of jihad, violence and terrorism.


What is jihad?


Jihad (exertion or struggle) is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Pillar of
Islam. The importance of jihad is rooted in the Holy Quran's
command to struggle (the literal meaning of the word jihad) in the path of God
and in the example of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his early Companions.


The history of the Muslim community from the Prophet (PBUH) to the present day
can be read within the framework of what the Holy Quran
teaches about jihad. These Holy Quranic teachings
have been of essential significance to Muslim self-understanding, piety, mobilisation, expansion, and defence.
Jihad as struggle pertains to the difficulty and complexity of living a good
life: struggling against the evil in oneself to be virtuous and moral, making
a serious effort to do good deeds and helping to reform society.


Depending on the circumstances in which one lives, it also can mean fighting
injustice and oppression, spreading and defending Islam, and creating a just
society through preaching, teaching, and, if necessary, armed struggle or holy
war.


The two broad meanings of jihad, non-violent and violent, are contrasted in a
well-known Prophetic tradition. It is said that when Prophet Mohammed (PBUH)
returned from battle he told his followers: "We return from the lesser
jihad (warfare) to the greater jihad." The greater jihad is the more
difficult and more important struggle against one's ego, selfishness, greed,
and evil.


In its most general meaning, jihad refers to the obligation incumbent on all
Muslims, individuals and the community, to follow and realise
God's will: to lead a virtuous life and to extend the Islamic community through
preaching, education, personal example, writing, etc. Jihad also includes the
right, indeed the obligation, to defend Islam and the community from
aggression. Throughout history, the call to jihad has rallied Muslims to the defence of Islam. The Afghan mujahideen
fought a decade-long jihad against Soviet occupation not long ago.


Jihad is a concept with multiple meanings, used and abused throughout Islamic
history. Although jihad has always been an important part of the Islamic
tradition, in recent years some have maintained that it is a universal
religious obligation for all true Muslims to join the jihad to promote Islamic
reform or revolution.


Some look around them and see a world dominated by corrupt authoritarian
regimes and a wealthy elite minority concerned solely with its own economic
prosperity and awash in Western culture and values. Western governments are
perceived as propping up oppressive regimes and exploiting the region's human
and natural resources, robbing Muslims of their culture and their option to be
governed according to their own choice and to live in a more just society.


Mainstream Islamic activists believe that the restoration of Muslim power and
prosperity requires a return to Islam, a political or social revolution to
create more Islamically
oriented states or societies. A radicalised violent
minority combine militancy with messianic visions to inspire and mobilise an army of God whose jihad they believe will
liberate Muslims at home and abroad. Despite the fact that jihad is not
supposed to be used for aggressive warfare, it has been, and continues to be,
so used by some rulers, governments, and individuals such as Saddam Hussain in the Gulf War of 1991, the Taliban in
Afghanistan, and Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.


Does the Holy Quran condone terrorism?


This is the kind of question no one asks of his or her own religion; we save it
for others! Historically, some Muslims have engaged in terrorism and used
religion to justify their actions. For many who have little previous knowledge
of Islam or Muslims, acts of terrorism committed by extremists, in particular
9/11, raise the question of whether there is something in Islam or the Holy Quran that fosters violence and terrorism.


Islam, like all religions, neither supports nor requires illegitimate violence.
The Holy Quran does not advocate or condone
terrorism. The God of the Holy Quran is consistently
portrayed as a God of mercy and compassion as well as a just judge.


Every verse of the Holy Quran begins with a reference
to God's mercy and compassion; throughout the Holy Quran
in many contexts, Muslims are reminded to be merciful and just. Indeed, whenever
a pious Muslim begins an activity such as a meal, writing a letter, or driving
a car, he or she says: "Al-Rahman Al-Rahim" (In the name of God the Merciful and
Compassionate). However, Islam does permit, indeed at times requires, Muslims
to defend themselves and their families, religion, and community from
aggression.


Like all scriptures, Islamic sacred texts must be read within the social and
political contexts in which they were revealed. It is not surprising that the
Holy Quran, like the Hebrew scriptures
or the Old Testament, has verses that address fighting and the conduct of war.


The world in which the Islamic community emerged was a rough neighbourhood. Arabia and the city
of Mecca, in which Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) lived and received
God's revelation, were beset by tribal raids and cycles of vengeance and
vendetta. The broader Near East, in which Arabia
was located, was itself divided between two warring superpowers, the Byzantine
(Eastern Roman) and the Sasanian (Persian) empires.


The earliest Holy Quranic verses, dealing with the
right to engage in a "defensive" jihad, or struggle, were revealed
shortly after the hijra (emigration) of Prophet
Mohammed (PBUH) and his followers to Medina in flight from their persecution in Mecca.


At a time when they were forced to fight for their lives, Prophet Mohammed
(PBUH) is told: "Leave is given to those who fight because they were
wronged surely God is able to help them who were expelled from their homes
wrongfully for saying, 'Our Lord is God'"(22:3940).


The defensive nature of jihad is clearly emphasized in 2:190: "And fight
in the way of God with those who fight you, but aggress not: God loves not the
aggressors." At critical points throughout the years, Prophet Mohammed
(PBUH) received revelations from God that provided guidelines for the jihad.


As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged as to what was proper behaviour during times of war. The Holy Quran
provided detailed guidelines and regulations regarding the conduct of war: who
is to fight and who is exempted (48:17, 9:91), when hostilities must cease
(2:192), and how prisoners should be treated (47:4). Most important, verses
such as 2:294, emphasized that warfare and the response to violence and
aggression must be proportional: "Whoever transgresses against you,
respond in kind."


However, Holy Quranic verses also underscore that
peace, not violence and warfare, is the norm.
Permission to fight the enemy is balanced by a strong mandate for making peace:
"If your enemy inclines towards peace, then you too should seek peace and
put your trust in God" (8:61) and "Had Allah wished, He would have
made them dominate you, and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and
offer you peace, then Allah allows you no way against them" (4:90). From
the earliest times, it was forbidden in Islam to kill non-combatants as well as
women and children and monks and rabbis, who were given the promise of immunity
unless they took part in fighting.


But what of those verses, sometimes referred to as the "sword
verses," that call for killing unbelievers, such as: "When the sacred
months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take them
and confine them and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush" (9:5)?
This is one of a number of Holy Quranic verses that
are cited by critics to demonstrate the inherently violent nature of Islam and
its scripture. These same verses have also been selectively used (or abused) by
religious extremists to develop a theology of hate and intolerance and to legitimise unconditional warfare against unbelievers.


During the period of expansion and conquest, many of the ulama
(religious scholars) enjoyed royal patronage and provided a rationale for
caliphs to pursue their imperial dreams and extend the boundaries of their
empires. They said that the "sword verses" abrogated or overrode the
earlier Holy Quranic verses that limited jihad to
defensive war: In fact, however, the full intent of "When the sacred
months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them" is missed
or distorted when quoted in isolation. For it is followed and qualified by:
"But if they repent and fulfill their devotional obligations and pay the zakat (the charitable tax on Muslims), then let them go
their way, for God is forgiving and kind"(9:5).


The same is true of another often quoted verse: "Fight those who believe
not in God nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden
by God and His Apostle, nor hold the religion of truth (even if they are) of
the People of the Book," which is often cited without the line that
follows, "Until they pay the tax with willing submission, and feel
themselves subdued" (9:29).


Throughout history, the sacred scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
have been used and abused, interpreted and misinterpreted, to justify
resistance and liberation struggles, extremism and terrorism, holy and unholy
wars. Terrorists like Osama bin Laden and others go
beyond classical Islam's criteria for a just jihad and recognise
no limits but their own, employing any weapons or means.


They reject Islamic laws regarding the goals and legitimate means for a valid
jihad: that violence must be proportional and that only the necessary amount of
force should be used to repel the enemy, that innocent
civilians should not be targeted, and that jihad must be declared by the ruler
or head of state.


Today, individuals and groups, religious and lay, seize the right to declare
and legitimise unholy wars of terrorism in the name
of Islam.


How can Islam be used to justify terrorism, hijackings, and hostage- taking?


While the atrocities and acts of terrorism committed by violent extremists have
connected Islam with terrorism, the Islamic tradition places limits on the use
of violence and rejects terrorism, hijackings, and hostage taking.


As with other faiths, mainstream and normative doctrines and laws are ignored,
distorted, or hijacked and misinterpreted by a radical fringe. Islamic law,
drawing on the Holy Quran, sets out clear guidelines
for the conduct of war and rejects acts of terrorism. Among other things, it is
quite specific in calling for the protection of non-combatants as well as for
proportional retaliation.


As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged about who had religious
and political authority, how to handle rebellion and civil war, what was proper
behaviour during times of war and peace, and how to rationalise and legitimise
expansion and conquest, violence and resistance. Answers were developed by
referring to Holy Quranic injunctions and the
practice of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his companions.


The Holy Quran provides detailed guidelines and
regulations regarding war: who should fight (48:17, 9:91), when fighting should
end (2:192), how to treat prisoners (47:4). It emphasises
proportionality in warfare: "Whoever transgresses against you, respond in
kind"(2:194).


Other verses provide a strong mandate for making peace: "If your enemy
inclines toward peace then you too should seek peace and put your trust in
God" (8:61) and "Had Allah wished, He would have made them dominate
you and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and offer you peace,
then Allah allows you no way against them" (4:90).


Since its beginnings, the Islamic community faced rebellion and civil wars,
violence and terrorism, epitomised by groups like the
Kharijites and Assassins. The Kharijites
were a pious but puritanical and militant extremist group that broke with the
caliph Ali and later assassinated him.


The Assassins lived apart in secret communities from which they were guided by
a series of Grand Masters, who ruled from the mountain fortress of Alamut in northern Persia. The Assassins' jihad against the Seljuq
Dynasty terrorised princes, generals, and ulama (scholars), whom they murdered in the name of the
Hidden Imam. They struck such terror in the hearts of their Muslim and Crusader
enemies that their exploits in Persia and Syria earned them a name and memory in history long after
they were overrun and the Mongols executed their last Grand Master in 1256.


The response of Sunni Islam and Islamic law was to marginalize extremists and
develop a political theory that emphasized stability over chaos and anarchy.
This, of course, did not dissuade all from the extremist path.


In more recent decades, alongside mainstream Islamic political opposition,
terrorist groups have risen to challenge regimes and terrorize their
populations and attack foreign interests. Often they portray themselves as the
"true believers" struggling against repressive regimes and in the
midst of a "pagan" society of unbelief. They attempt to impose their
ideological brand of Islam and "hijack" Islamic doctrines such as
jihad, claiming to be defending true Islam, to legitimize their illegitimate
use of violence and acts of terrorism.


In Egypt, groups like Egypt's Islamic Jihad, and other extremist groups,
assassinated President Anwar Sadat
and other government officials, slaughtered tourists in Luxor, burned churches and killed Christians.


In Algeria, the Armed Islamic Group has engaged in a campaign of
terror against the Algerian government. Osama bin
Laden and Al Qaida undertook a global war of terror
against Muslim governments and America, distorting Islam and countering Islamic law in
issuing their own fatwas (legal opinions) in an
attempt to legitimise their war and call for attacks
against civilians (non-combatants).


Although these groups tend to receive the most media coverage because of the
high-profile atrocities they commit, they represent only an extremist minority,
not the majority of Muslims.


Despite the fact that Europe and America have had long associations with Muslim
countries politically and economically, and that today Islam and Muslims are an
integral part of the West, the second largest religion in Europe and the third
largest in America, Islam and the mainstream of Muslim societies are judged not
by their faith but by the acts of Muslim extremists and terrorist groups like Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.


Ironically, when Christian or Jewish extremists commit acts of violence and
terror, they are automatically and reflexively distinguished as extremists,
that is, deviating from the normative and mainstream faith of Judaism and
Christianity.


However, today Islam is not treated in a similar fashion. Thus, when many use
the phrase "Muslim extremist", it is often not to distinguish the
extremist from the mainstream for indeed many continue to question or to
believe that Islam itself is extremist. Addressing and
correcting this issue is critical today not only in terms of religious,
political and economic relations between the Muslim world and the West but also
in terms of the acceptance and civil rights of the mainstream Muslim majority
in the West.


John L. Esposito is University Professor Religion and International Affairs and
Founding Director of the Centre for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Walsh School for Foreign Service, Georgetown University.


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