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DIVISIONS
WITHIN SHI'ISM
Each religion possesses a certain number of primary principles which form its
essential basis and other principles of secondary importance. When the followers
of a religion differ as to the nature of the primary principles and their
secondary aspects but preserve a common basis, the result is called division (inshi'ab)
within that religion. Such divisions exist in all traditions and religions, and
more particularly in the four "revealed" religions of Judaism,
Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Islam.
Shi'ism did not undergo any divisions during the imamate of the first three
Imams: Ali, Hasan, and Husayn. But after the martyrdom of Husayn, the majority
of the Shi'ites accepted the imamate of Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, while a
minority known as the Kisaniyah believed that the third son of Ali, Muhammad ibn
Hanafiyah, was the fourth Imam as well as the promised Mahdi, and that he had
gone into occultation in the Radwa mountains and one day would reappear. After
the death of Imam al-Sajjad the majority of the Shi'ites accepted as Imam his
son, Muhammad al-Baqir, while a minority followed Zayd al-Shahid, another son of
Imam al-Sajjad, and became known as Zaydis. Following Imam Muhammad al-Baqir,
the Shi'ites accepted his son Ja'far al-Sadiq as Imam and after the death of
Imam Ja'far the majority followed his son Imam Musa al-Kazim as the seventh
Imam. However, one group followed the older son of the sixth Imam, Isma'il, who
had died while his father was still alive, and when this latter group separated
from the majority of Shi'ites it became known as Isma'ilis. Others accepted as
Imam either 'Abdollah al-Aftah or Muhammad, both sons of the sixth Imam.
Finally, another party stopped with the sixth Imam himself and considered him as
the last Imam. In the same way, after the martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim the
majority followed his son, Ali al-Rida, as the eight Imam. However, some stopped
with the seventh Imam and became known as the Waqifiyah.
From the eighth Imam to the twelfth, whom the majority of the Shi'ites
believe to be the promised Mahdi, no division of any importance took place
within Shi'ism. Even if certain events occurred in the form of division, they
lasted but a few days and dissolved by themselves. For example, Ja'far, the son
of the tenth Imam, claimed to be Imam after the death of his brother, the
eleventh Imam. A group of people followed him but scattered in a few days and
Ja'far himself did not follow his claim any further. Further more, there are
differences between Shi'ites in theological and juridical matters which must not
be considered as division in religious schools. Also the Babi and Baha'i sects,
which like the Batinis (the Qaramitah) differ in both the principles (usul) and
branches (furu') of Islam from the Muslims, should in any sense be considered as
branches of Shi'ism.
The sects which separated from the majority of Shi'ites all dissolved within
a short period, except two: the Zaydi and the Isma'ili which continue to exist
until now. To this day communities of these branches are active in various parts
of the world such as the Yemen, India, and Syria. Therefore, we shall limit our
discussion to these two branches along with the majority of Shi'ites who are
Twelvers.
Zaydism and
Its Branches
The Zaydis are the followers of Zayd al-Shahid, the son of Imam al-Sajjad.
Zayd rebelled in 121/737 against the Umayyad caliph Hisham 'Abd al-Malik and a
group paid allegiance to him. A battle ensued in Kufa between Zayd and the army
of the caliph in which Zayd was killed.
The followers of Zayd regard him as the fifth Imam of the Household of the
Prophet. After him his son, Yahya ibn Zayd, who rebelled against the caliph
Walid ibn Yazid and was also killed, took his place. After Yahya, Muhammad ibn
'Abdallah and Ibrahim ibn 'Abdallah, who revolted against the Abbasid caliph
Mansur al-Dawaniqi and were also killed, were chosen as Imams.
Henceforth for some time there was disorder in Zaydi ranks until Nasir
al-Utrush, a descendant of the brother of Zayd, arose in Khurasan. Being pursued
by the governmental authorities in that region, he fled to Mazandaran, becoming
himself Imam. For some time his descendants continued to rule as Imams in that
area.
According to Zaydi belief any descendant of Fatimah (the daughter of the
Prophet) who begins an uprising in the name of defending the truth may become
Imam if he is learned in the religious sciences, ethically pure, courageous and
generous. Yet for some time after Utrush and his descendants there was no Imam
who could bring about an insurrection with the sword until recently when, about
sixty years ago, Imam Yahya revolted in the Yemen, which had been part of the
Ottoman Empire, made it independent, and began to rule there as Imam. His
descendants continued to rule in that region as Imams until very recently.
At the beginning the Zaydis, like Zayd himself, considered the first two
caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, as their Imams. But after a while some of them began
to delete the name of the first two caliphs from the list of Imams and placed
Ali as the first Imam.
From what is known of Zaydi beliefs it can be said that in the principles of
Islam (usul) they follow a path close to that of the Mu'tazilites, while in the
branches or derivative institutions of the law (furu') they apply the
jurisprudence of Abu Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of
law. They also differ among themselves concerning certain problems.
Isma'ilism
and Its Branches
Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq had a son named Isma'il who was the oldest of his
children. Isma'il died during the lifetime of his father who summoned witnesses
to his death, including the governor of Medina. Concerning this question , some
believed that Isma'il did not die but went into occultation, that he would
appear again and would be the promised Mahdi. They further believed that the
summoning of witnesses on the part of the Imam for Isma'il's death was a way of
hiding the truth in fear of al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph. Another group
believed that the true Imam was Isma'il whose death meant the imamate was
transferred to his son Muhammad. A third group also held that although he died
during the lifetime of his father he was the Imam and that the imamate passed
after him to Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants. The first two groups soon
became extinct, while the third branch continues to exist to this day and has
undergone a certain amount of division.
The Isma'ilis have a philosophy in many ways similar to that of the Sabaeans
(star worshippers) combined with elements of Hindu gnosis. In the sciences and
decrees of Islam they believe that each exterior reality (zahir) has an inner
aspect (batin) and each element of revelation (tanzil) a hermeneutic and
esoteric exegesis (ta'wil).
The Isma'ilis believe that the earth can never exist without Proof (hujjah)
of God. The Proof is two kinds: "speaker" (natiq) and
"silent one" (samit). The speaker is a prophet and the silent
one is an Imam or Guardian (wali) who is the inheritor, or executor of the
testament (wasi) of a prophet. In any case the Proof of God is the perfect
theophany of the Divinity.
The principle of the Proof of God revolves constantly around the number
seven. A prophet (nabi), who is sent by God, has the function of prophecy
(nubuwwat), of bringing a Divine Law or Shari'ah. A prophet, who is the
perfect manifestation of God, has the esoteric power of initiating men into the
divine Mysteries (walayat). After him there are seven executors of his testament
(wasayat) and the power of esoteric initiation into the Divine Mysteries
(walayat). The seventh in the succession possesses those two powers and also the
additional power of prophecy (nubuwwat). The cycle of seven executors (wasis) is
then repeated with the seventh a prophet.
The Isma'ilis say that Adam was sent as a prophet with the power of prophecy
and of esoteric guidance and he had seven executors of whom the seventh was
Noah, who had the three functions of nubuwwat, wasayat, and walayat. Abraham was
the seventh executor (wasi) of Noah, Moses the seventh executor of Abraham,
Jesus the seventh executor of Moses, Muhammad the seventh executor of Jesus, and
Muhammad ibn Isma'il the seventh executor of Muhammad.
They consider the wasis of the Prophet to be: Ali, Husayn ibn Ali (they do
not consider Imam Hasan among the Imams), Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, Muhammad
al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, Isma'il ibn Ja'far, and Muhammad ibn Isma'il. After
this series there are seven descendants of Muhammad ibn Isma'il whose names are
hidden and secret. After them there are the first seven rulers of the Fatimid
caliphate of Egypt the first of whom, 'Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, was the founder of
the Fatimid dynasty. The Isma'ilis also believe that in addition to the Proof of
God there are always present on earth twelve "chiefs" (naqib)
who are the companions and elite followers of the Proof. Some of the branches of
the Batinis, however, like the Druzes, believe six of the "chiefs" to
be from the Imams and six from others.
The Batinis
In the year 278/891, a few years before the appearance of Ubaydallah al-Mahdi
in North Africa, there appeared in Kufa an unknown person from Khuzistan (in
southern Persia) who never revealed his name and identity. He would fast during
the day and worship at night and made a living from his own labor. In addition
he invited people to join the Isma'ili cause and was able to assemble a large
number of people about him. From among them he chose twelve "chiefs"
(naqib) and then he set out for Damascus. Having left Kufa he was never heard of
again.
This unknown man was replaced by Ahmad, known as the Qaramite, who began to
propagate Batini teachings in Iraq. As the historians have recorded, he
instituted two daily prayers in place of the five of Islam, removed the
necessity of ablution after sexual intercourse, and made the drinking of wine
permissible. Contemporary with these events, other Batini leaders rose to invite
people to join their cause and assembled a group of followers.
The Batinis had no respect for the lives and possessions of those who were
outside their group. For this reason they began uprisings in the cities of Iraq,
Bahrain, the Yemen, and Syria, spilling the blood of people and looting their
wealth. Many times they stopped the caravans of those who were making the
pilgrimage to Mecca, killing tens of thousands of pilgrims and plundering their
provisions and camels.
Abu Tahir al-Qaramati, one of the Qaramite leaders who in 311/923 had
conquered Basra and did not neglect to kill and plunder, set out with a large
number of Batinis for Mecca in 317/929. After overcoming the brief resistance of
government troops he entered the city and massacred the population as well as
the newly arrived pilgrims. Even within the Masjid al-haram (the mosque
containing the Ka'bah) and within the Holy Ka'bah itself, there flowed streams
of blood. He divided the covering of the Ka'bah between his disciples. He tore
away the door of the Ka'bah and took the black stone from its place back to the
Yemen. For twenty-two years the black stone was in Qaramite hands. As a result
of these actions the majority of Muslims turned completely away from the Batinis
and considered them outside the pale of Islam. Even 'Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, the
Fatimid ruler, who had risen in those days in North Africa and considered
himself the promised Mahdi, abhorred them.
According to the view of historians the distinguishing characteristic of the
Batini school is that it interprets the external aspects of Islam in an esoteric
manner and considers the externals of the Shari'ah to be only for simple-minded
people of little intelligence who are deprived of spiritual perfection. Yet
occasionally the Batini Imams did order certain regulations and laws to be
practiced and followed.
The
Nizaris, Musta'lis, Druzes and Muqanna'ah
The Nizaris. Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, who rose in North Africa in 292/904
and as an Isma'ili declared his imamate and established Fatimid rule, is the
founder of the dynasty whose descendants made Cairo the center of their
caliphate. For seven generations this sultanate and Isma'ili imamate continued
without any divisions. At the death of the seventh Imam, al-Mustansir bi'llah
Mu'idd ibn Ali, his sons, Nizar and al-Musta'li, began to dispute over the
caliphate and imamate. After long disputes and bloody battle al-Musta'li was
victorious. He captured his brother Nizar and placed him in prison, where he
died.
Following this dispute those who accepted the Fatimids divided into two
groups: the Nizaris and the Musta'lis. The Nizaris are the followers of Hasan
al-Sabbah, who was one of the close associates of al-Mustansir. After Nizar's
death, because of his support of Nizar, Hasan al-Sabbah was expelled from Egypt
by al-Musta'li. He came to Persia and after a short while appeared in the Fort
of Alamut near Qazwin. He conquered Alamut and several surrounding forts. There
he established his rule and also began to invite people to the Isma'ili cause.
After the death of Hasan in 518/1124 Buzurg Umid Rudbari and after him his
son, Kiya Muhammad, continued to rule following the methods and ways of Hasan
al-Sabbah. After Kiya Muhammad, his son Hasan 'AlaDhikrihi'l-Salam, the fourth
ruler of Alamut, changed the ways of Hasan al-Sabbah, who had been Nizari, and
became Batini. Henceforth the Isma'ili forts continued as Batini. Four other
rulers, Muhammad ibn Ala Dhikruhi'l-Salam, Jala al-Din Hasan, 'Ala' al-Din, and
Rukn al-Din Khurshah, became Sultan and Imam one after another until Hulagu, the
Mongol conqueror, invaded Persia. He captured Isma'ili forts and put all the
Isma'ilis to death, leveling their forts to the ground.
Centuries later, in 1255/1839, the Aqa Khan of Mahalat in Persia, who
belonged to the Nizaris, rebelled against Muhammad Shah Qajar in Kerman, but he
was defeated and fled to Bombay. There he propagated his Batini-Nizari cause
which continues to this day. The Nizaris are today called the Aqa Khanids.
The Musta'lis. The Musta'lis were the followers of al-Musta'li. Their
imamate continued during Fatimid rule in Egypt until it was brought to an end in
the year 567/1171. Shortly thereafter, the Bohra sect, following the same
school, appeared in India and survives to this day.
The Druzes. The Druzes, who live in the Druze mountains in Syria (and
also in Lebanon), were originally followers of the Fatimid caliphs. But as a
result of the missionary activity of Nashtakin, the Druzes joined the Batini
sect. The Druzes stop with the sixth Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi'llah, whom
others believe to have been killed, and claim that he is in occultation. He has
ascended to heaven and will appear once again to the world.
The Muqanna'ah. The Muqanna'ah were at first disciples of 'Ata'
al-Marwi known as Muqanna', who according to historical sources was a follower
of Abu Muslim of Khurasan. After the death of Abu Muslim, Muqanna' claimed that
Abu Muslim's soul had become incarnated in him. Soon he claimed to be a prophet
and later a divinity. Finally, in the year 162/777 he was surrounded in the fort
of Kabash in Transoxiana. When he became certain that he would be captured and
killed, he threw himself into a fire along with some of his disciples and burned
to death. His followers soon adopted Isma'ilism and the ways of the Batinis.
Differences
Between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Isma'ilism and Zaydism
The majority of the Shi'ites, from whom the previously mentioned groups have
branched out, are Twelve-Imam Shi'ites, also called the Imamites. As has already
been mentioned, the Shi'ites came into being because of criticism and protest
concerning two basic problems of Islam, without having any objections to the
religious ways which through the instructions of the Prophet had become
prevalent among their contemporary Muslims. These two problems concerned Islamic
government and authority in the religious sciences, both of which the Shi'ites
considered to be the particular right of the Household of the Prophet.
The Shi'ites asserted that the Islamic caliphate, of which esoteric guidance
and spiritual leadership are inseparable elements, belongs to Ali and his
descendants. They also believed that according to the specification of the
Prophet the Imams of the Household of the Prophet are twelve in number. Shi'ism
held, moreover, that the external teachings of the Quran, which are the
injunctions and regulations of the Shari'ah and include the principles of a
complete spiritual life, are valid and applicable for everyone at all times, and
are not to be abrogated until the Day of Judgment. These injunctions and
regulations must be learned through the guidance of the Household of the
Prophet.
From a consideration of these points it becomes clear that the difference
between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Zaydism is that the Zaydis usually do not
consider the imamate to belong solely to the Household of the Prophet and do not
limit the number of Imams to twelve. Also they do not follow the jurisprudence
of the Household of the Prophet as do the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites.
The difference between the Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Isma'ilism lies in that
for the latter the imamate revolves around the number seven and prophecy does
not terminate with the Holy Prophet Muhammad. Also for them, change and
transformation in the injunctions of the Shari'ah are admissible, as is even
rejection of the duty of following Shari'ah, especially among the Batinis. In
contrast, the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites consider the Prophet to be the "seal of
prophecy" and believe him to have twelve successors and executors of his
will. They hold the external aspect of the Shari'ah to be valid and impossible
to abrogate. They affirm that the Quran has both an exoteric and an esoteric
aspect.
Summary
of the History of Twelve-Imam Shi'ism
As has become clear form the previous pages, the majority of Shi'ites are
Twelvers. They were originally the same group of friends and supporters of Ali
who, after the death of the Prophet, in order to defend the right of the
Household of the Prophet in the question of the caliphate and religious
authority, began to criticize and protest against prevalent views and separated
from the majority of the people.
During the caliphate of the "rightly-guided caliphs"
(11/632-35/656) the Shi'ites were under a certain amount of pressure which
became much greater during the Umayyad Caliphate (40/661-132/750) when they were
no longer protected in any way against destruction of their lives and property.
Yet the greater the pressure placed upon them, the firmer they became in their
belief. They especially benefited from their being oppressed in spreading their
beliefs and teachings.
From the middle of the 2nd/8th century when the Abbasid caliphs established
their dynasty, Shi'ism was able to gain a mew life as a result of the languid
and weak state prevailing at that time. Soon, however, conditions became
difficult once again and until the end of the 3rd/9th century became ever more
stringent.
At the beginning of the 4th/10th century, with the rise of the influential
Buyids, who were Shi'ites, Shi'ism gained power and became more or less free to
carry out its activities. It began to carry out scientific and scholarly debates
and continued in this manner until the end of the 5th/11th century. At the
beginning of the 7th/13th century when the Mongol invasion began, as a result of
the general involvement in war and chaos and the continuation of the Crusades,
the different Islamic governments did not put too great a pressure upon the
Shi'ites. Moreover, the conversion to Shi'ism of some Mongol rulers in Persia
and the rule of the Sadat-i Mar'ashi (who were Shi'ites) in Mazandaran were
instrumental in the spread of the power and territory of Shi'ism. They made the
presence of large concentrations of Shi'ite population in Persia and other
Muslim lands felt more than ever before. This situation continued through the
9th/15th century.
At the beginning of the 10th/16th century, as a result of the rise of the
Safavids, Shi'ism became the official religion of the vast territories of Persia
and continues in this position to the present day. In other regions of the world
also there are tens of millions of Shi'ites.
